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Persistent presence of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) in the environment is due to their extensive use in industrial and consumer products, and their slow decay. Biochemical tests in rodent demonstrated that these chemicals are potent modifiers of lipid metabolism and cause hepatocellular steatosis. However, the molecular mechanism of PFAAs interference with lipid metabolism remains to be elucidated. Currently, two major hypotheses are that PFAAs interfere with mitochondria] beta-oxidation of fatty acids and/or they affect the transcriptional activity of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor a (PPARa) in liver. To determine the ability of structurally-diverse PFAAs to cause steatosis, as well as to understand the underlying molecular mechanisms, wild-type (WT) and PPAR alpha-null mice were treated with perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), or perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS), by oral gavage for 7 days, and their effects were compared to that of PPARa agonist WY-14643 (WY), which does not cause steatosis. Increases in liver weight and cell size, and decreases in DNA content per mg of liver, were observed for all compounds in WT mice, and were also seen in PPARa-null mice for PFOA, PFNA, and PFHxS, but not for WY. In Oil Red 0 stained sections, WT liver showed increased lipid accumulation in all treatment groups, whereas in PPAR alpha-null livers, accumulation was observed after PFNA and PFHxS treatment, adding to the burden of steatosis observed in control (untreated) PPARa-null mice. Liver triglyceride (TG) levels were elevated in WT mice by all PFAAs and in PPARa-null mice only by PFNA. In vitro beta-oxidation of palmitoyl carnitine by isolated rat liver mitochondria was not inhibited by any of the 7 PFAAs tested. Likewise, neither PFOA nor PFOS inhibited palmitate oxidation by HepG2/C3A human liver cell cultures. Microarray analysis of livers from PFAAs-treated mice indicated that the PFAAs induce the expression of the lipid catabolism genes, as well as those involved in fatty acid and triglyceride synthesis, in WT mice and, to a lesser extent, in PPARa-null mice. These results indicate that most of the PFAAs increase liver TG load and promote steatosis in mice We hypothesize that PFAAs increase steatosis because the balance of fatty acid accumulation/synthesis and oxidation is disrupted to favor accumulation.(C) Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd.