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Spring-fed fen deposits (peat-tufa sequences) from northern Poland were investigated for Holocene environmental reconstruction (climate and hydrology) using multi-proxy analysis (lithofacies, molluscs, pollen, plant macrofossils, geochemistry, and stable oxygen- and carbon-isotopes). The main aims of these studies were: (1) comparison of several similar sites with the same type of groundwater supply and sedimentation on a widespread space scale, (2) detailed reconstruction of their long-term development, assessing their sensitivity to climate change, (3) verification of the synchronicity of the record of different proxies in distant sites in the context of Holocene climate changes in relation to specific well-known global and/or regional climate events (so-called Bond events), and (4) discussion on permafrost degradation as a driver of spring-fed fens development.

Based on our palaeogeographical data, we have distinguished an asynchronicity of the beginning of the development of spring-fed fens in the eastern and western parts of the studied region that is associated with different times of ascending groundwater supply unblocking after complete permafrost degradation. Therein, asynchronicity of permafrost degradation was brought about by multiple climatic, geological and structural conditions. Our results also indicate significant differences in the trends of succession (ecological and lithological) caused by the geographical location of the studied sites. Asynchronicity of the occurrence of wet and dry phases, as well as significant differences in their duration were noted. This depended upon the influence of oceanic (western part) or continental climates (eastern part). Warm and humid oceanic climate promoted the domination and longer duration of wet phases (especially in the Eo- and early Mesoholocene), while the harsh continental climate promoted the more frequent occurrence of dry phases, with short episodes of increased humidity. From the middle Mesoholocene, this marked regional diversification becomes less pronounced. Results also allowed for the recognition of several palaeoclimatic events on a regional scale. Four main cold episodes (Bond events 8 -5): during LG/H transition (11.5 ky cal BP), Eo- (similar to 10.25 ky cal BP, similar to 9.4 ky cal BP) and at the beginning of the Mesoholocene (similar to 8.2 ky cal BP) are well-documented by multiple proxies at all study sites. Other cold episodes (Bond events 4-0) are slightly less documented and are not clear for interpretation. The results of our study demonstrate the importance of spring-fed fen deposits for detailed palaeoenvironmental reconstruction on a regional scale. (C) 2019 Published by Elsevier Ltd.